IMAGE INSIGHTS (Qumran and Isaiah 40:8): Located near the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, the Wadi Qumran is the celebrated site of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Essene community of the Jews. Nearly 1,000 manuscripts of the biblical text (and others) were represented in the thousands of fragments and scrolls written on parchment and papyrus. Discovered in a series of caves between 1947 and 1956, the Dead Sea Scrolls are arguably the most important discovery of the 20th century and an archaeological treasure beyond compare. The scrolls include parts of every book of the Hebrew Bible (except Esther), along with many other ancient writings. Cave 4 (lower right hand of photograph) was particularly rich in material yielding 15,000 fragments from at least six hundred composite texts. Cave 1 contained a full manuscript of the book of Isaiah and is one of the largest and best preserved of the entire Dead Sea Scroll collection. It dates to approximately 100 BC and prior to its discovery the oldest known complete manuscript of the Old Testament had been the Aleppo Codex written in the 10th Century AD. The Dead Sea Scrolls were a monumental discovery which reveal the faithful preservation and transmission of God’s word. Critics were silenced as the scrolls contained no serious challenges to the narratives and doctrines of scripture. We can trust that the bible we are reading today is what was read by our forefathers in the faith. “The grass withers, the flower fades, But the word of our God stands forever” (Isaiah 40:8). By John W. Moore

IMAGE INSIGHTS: In the rocky terrain northwest of present-day Ein Bokek, a large rugged escarpment known as Masada stands defiantly in the desert territory of the Dead Sea. Located in the lowest region on earth, this natural defensive outpost towers some 1,424 feet above the dry and barren creek-beds below. The word masada is found in the Hebrew Bible and is often translated in English as “stronghold” or “fortress.” This uniquely shaped escarpment was only approachable by a crooked, narrow trail known as the snake path. It was a virtually impregnable natural fortress and became an ideal location for a small garrison of men to defend themselves against a larger opposing force below. In the first century before Christ, King Herod had a defensive stronghold with a luxurious palace placed on its summit in the likely event he might have to flee Jerusalem from an invading army or band of zealots. Long before Herod, tradition says that King David took refuge here as well. While this cannot be proven, we do know that it was to places like Masada that David found solace against his enemies and escaped the threat of death or harm (e.g. 1 Samuel 23:29; 24:22). These same rocky strongholds and fortresses would eventually be used as imagery by Israel’s great poets and hymn writers in describing the greatness of God and the security they found in Him: “Blessed be the Lord, my rock, who trains my hands for war, and my fingers for battle; he is my steadfast love and my fortress [metsudah], my stronghold and my deliverer, my shield and he in whom I take refuge” (Psalm 144:1-2). by John W. Moore

IMAGE INSIGHTS (Arch of Titus and 2 Corinthians 2:14): The Arch of Titus with its depiction of the Jewish menorah and table of showbread reminds us of the fulfillment of a prophecy made by Jesus in Matthew 24. Longing to throw-off Roman hegemony which had been in place in Israel since 63 BC, the Jews revolted and fought bitterly against the armies who had occupied their land. Vespasian and Titus, of the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Roman empire from AD 69-96, reconquered much of the territory lost to the Jewish zealots and then laid siege to the holy city of Jerusalem. In AD 70, the beautiful Herodian temple complex in Jerusalem was destroyed and utterly decimated. After many days of brutal fighting the beloved city of the Jews fell and the temple was robbed of its costly furnishings and placed on display in a victory march through the Roman Forum and up to Capitoline Hill where sacrifices were made to Jupiter, the protector of the Roman armies. The victory parade was memorialized with an arched stone monument erected in AD 81 and placed along the Sacred Way in the Roman Forum. The arch of Titus, along with the findings of archaeology at the site of the temple in Jerusalem, testify to fulfillment of what Jesus had prophesied nearly 40 years earlier. Could it be that we as Christians are the spoils of war captured by Jesus, and that are proudly placed on display as those who belong to Him? The Arch of Titus likewise reminds us of some of the practices and culture encountered by Christians living in the first three centuries following Christ. Triumphal victory parades were not uncommon and had been done with previous wars won by the Romans. Thus, the practice of triumphal processions and the imagery used from these events by Paul in his letters to the church at Corinth and Colossae would have been familiar. It could be that Paul was referring to these types of parades when he penned 2 Corinthians 2:14 and Colossians 2:15. Could it be that we as Christians are the spoils of war captured by Jesus, and that are proudly placed on display as those who belong to Him? In addition to the scene of soldiers carrying spoils from the temple in a victory celebration, there are other bible connections that can be deduced from the arch as well. Sculpted panels on the under belly of the arch and on the column opposite the menorah depict Titus being crowned with a victory wreath by the goddess Nike, his riding a four-horse chariot being led by the war god Roma, and his deification to god-like status symbolized by eagles carrying him into the heavens. Each of these scenes and their symbols have a bearing on interpreting the book of Revelation (see Revelation 2:10, 6:2-8), and likewise remind us of the challenges that the early Christians faced living in cities where the emperors of Rome were worshipped as gods. By John W. Moore

IMAGE INSIGHTS: The ancient city of David and Jerusalem’s temple mount (Mount Zion), where Islam’s Dome of the Rock rest today, is lower than the adjacent hills. Biblical Jerusalem is surrounded by three valleys and sits at an approximate elevation of 2,428 feet above sea level. This Bible Land Passages photo was taken from the slope of Mount Scopus which is nearly three hundred feet higher than where the Temple once stood. To the south lies an even higher hill, Eztel Hill (Hill of Evil Counsel), at 2,552 feet. To the west, the Judean ridge sits even higher. Notice how the author in Psalm 125:1-2 utilizes this imagery to convey God’s constant provision and care. “Those who trust in the LORD are as Mount Zion, which cannot be moved but abides forever. As the mountains surround Jerusalem, so the LORD surrounds His people. From this time forth and forever.” by John W. Moore

On the slope of Mount Parnassus the temple of Apollo sits with a mysterious aura just longing to confess its ancient secrets. In the centuries leading up to the time of Christ, this sanctuary at Delphi, Greece was alive with the sounds of sacred activity and toxic induced religious utterances emanating from the famed and respected oracles called sybils. Today, only the chatter of curious visitors and an occasional eerie sound of the wind can be heard swirling through the six standing columns near the temple’s main entrance. That occasional hissing sound, if you use your imagination, almost sounds like the hiss of a snake and serves to remind us of Delphi’s storied past and its connection to an event described at Philippi in the book of Acts. While several stories exist about the origins of Delphi, legend says a giant serpent-dragon named Python, born to the earth goddess Gaia, once guarded a sacred area known for receiving prophesies. At this location the Greek god Apollo is said to have slain the serpent and taken control of the site. To commemorate his victory, a temple was erected in his honor, the Pythian games were established, and the oracles inherited the name Pythia. These oracles were always women, and it was professed that they became the human mistresses of Apollo endowed with the ability to be a conduit for revealing prophecies and uttering proverbial statements. In Greek society, priestesses at Delphi called oracles (also known as sybils) were highly prized for their alleged attempts to divine the future. Writers like Herodotus, Strabo, and Plutarch, each gave accounts of various famous people of history coming to Delphi to consult the oracle. Through these ancient historians we learn that Croesus King of Lydia and Alexander the Great came here hoping to gain insights into the future. Even King Leonidas of the Spartans stopped here for advice before making his famous stand against the Persians at Thermopylae. This battle was of course popularized by Warner Bros. in their 2006 film called 300. According to Strabo (c. 64 B.C.–25 A.D.), the oracle would prophesy while under the influence of a vapor rising from the temple’s inner court which “inspired a divine state of possession” (Geography 9.3.5). While under the influence of what was probably some sort of petrochemical gas released when rock masses were heated by an active geological fault, the oracle would utter an unintelligible message (see Archaeology Odyssey Nov/Dec 2002). While in her trance like state, and rambling in response to questions posed by worshippers, other priest acting as interpreters would deliver the message. Greek and Roman historians preserved a number of these supposed prophecies, most of which are vague and ambiguous, thus allowing for a favorable view of the oracle regardless of the outcome. Many of the prophecies were anecdotal and were passed down as proverbs. Interestingly, there is an important link between the oracles of Delphi and the bible. For Greeks, one of the most influential voices of their heritage for making decisions and divining the will of the gods was a Pythia. The word “pythia” is actually found in the Greek New Testament and is used to describe the slave girl encountered by Paul and Silas at Philippi (Acts 16:16). Often translated as “divination,” the text probably should read as follows: “And it came to pass in our going on to prayer, a certain maid, having a spirit of python, did meet us, who brought much employment to her master’s by soothsaying” (Young’s Literal Translation). In either case, the exorcism was a clear polemic against the so-called gods of the Roman-Greco world and their oracles; a world that had a long history associated with respect for prophetesses like those at Delphi. Near the end of the New Testament period, the location of Delphi had lessened in its importance, but a belief in the power of the Pythia was still prevalent throughout the Greco-Roman world. To have a Pythia from the historic site of Delphi which resided in your city, whether in reality or in name, would have been highly prized. Therefore, we should not be surprised that the owners of the slave girl in Philippi were said to be acquiring “much gain” from her alleged divining of the future (Acts 16:16). Because of both her witness and popularity, Paul may have allowed her to continue “for many days” with her pronouncements about he and Silas being “servants of the Most High God, who proclaim the way of salvation” (Acts 16:17). However, his patience reached its end, and Paul became “greatly annoyed” with the spirit that had possessed her (Acts 16:18). Paul’s annoyance with the spirit of the Pythia (Acts 16:18) is indeed perplexing, but it may have resulted from one of the following reasons. First, her pronouncements about the “Most High God” and “a way of salvation” (the definite article does not appear in Greek) may have been intended to promote Apollo whom the Pythia served. Because Apollo was considered to be one of the chief or “high” gods in the region, did the Pythia believe that the source of Paul's preaching at Philippi was from Apollo? If so, because of her popularity, its conceivable that Paul would tolerate her for a short period in order to gain an audience for his sermons among those who had respected and honored her work as an oracle. Or second, did she in fact possess a demonic spirit, similar to the man of Mark 5:1-20 who was actually uttering truth? If so, perhaps some at Philippi were becoming confused about the real identify of this Most-High God, and were likewise becoming more interested in the Pythia than in the message of the gospel. This would, therefore, have greatly disturbed Paul leading to the exorcism of this demonic spirit and the demonstration of the power and authority of Jesus (Acts 16:18). In either case, the exorcism was a clear polemic against the so-called gods of the Roman-Greco world and their oracles; a world that had a long history associated with respect for prophetesses like those at Delphi. It is easy to see that the cultural fascination and significance given to prophecy and oracular utterances could have easily spilled over into the life of the church, creating division and chaos. Finally, because oracles were honored and revered, it is worth considering the impact this might have had on the church in other places besides Philippi. Corinth, for example, was located just across the Corinthian gulf some 42 miles southeast of Delphi, and the city had undoubtedly been influenced by the lore surrounding the Pythia. If so, converts from Corinth may have been influenced as well, and it is easy to see why the gifts of the Holy Spirit regarding prophecy and tongue speaking had become corrupted and misused. Could it also be that because the Pythia were always female that Paul forbad the women in the church to speak (1 Corinthians 14:34-35) because he was concerned that some might connect the women disciples at Corinth to pagan practices? This might explain why Paul in 1 Corinthians 14:34 used a Greek word that means to “to stop speaking” (BDAG), whereas in 1 Timothy 2:12 the word he uses in relationship to women in the spiritual public setting means quietness (cf. 1 Timothy 2:8). At Corinth, I can easily see that the cultural fascination and significance given to prophecy and oracular utterances could have easily spilled over into the life of the church, creating division and chaos. This is exactly what was happening as revealed in 1 Corinthians 14. It may very well be the case that pagan theology had entered the church, and therefore had to be removed. If a “pythia” like influence that had once been associated with the worship of Apollo had entered the church, then it had to be denounced and exercised. Because there were deceivers who had gone out into the world (2 John 1:7) the spirits of these false oracles needed to be put to the test (1 John 4:1). Paul revealed that the intent and content of the prophetic message, along with the controlled and intelligible behavior of the prophet, stood juxtaposed to the false utterances and behavior of the oracles of paganism. A vivid contrast existed between a false oracle like those of Delphi who could not control the alleged spirit and who spoke with and “indistinct sound” (cf. 1 Corinthians 14:8-9; 32-33), versus a true prophet of God who could (1 Corinthians 14:19). The discoveries at Delphi are a clear reminder that just as the early church was faced with the problems of syncretism, the church today must likewise be on guard about cultural influences that might affect our view of scripture and practice within God's family. What we read in the book of Acts and in the letters to the Corinthians, when examined against the historical and cultural backdrop of what occurred in Delphi, is just one more example of the powerful connection between faith and fact. What we learn from the historical and cultural context of the world in which the Bible was written should be carefully considered and analyzed while seeking to understand and apply the sacred and timeless truths to our present age. By John W. Moore Sources Arndt, William et al. A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature 2000: 896. Fairbanks, A. (1906). Herodotus and the Oracle at Delphi. The Classical Journal, 1(2), 37–48. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3287085 Jelle Zeilinga de Boer and John R. Hale; "The Oracle of Delphi—Was She Really Stoned?" Archaeology Odyssey, November/December 2002. Lloyd-Jones, H. (1976). The Delphic Oracle. Greece & Rome, 23(1), 60–73. http://www.jstor.org/stable/642917 Strabo. (19171932). The geography of Strabo. London : New York :W. Heinemann ; G.P. Putnam's Sons, Young, Robert. Youngs Literal Translation. Bellingham, WA, 1997. https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-greece/delphi

By John W. Moore It might be unfamiliar. It might even sound to us like one of those peculiar literary devices discussed in a course on biblical hermeneutics (the science of interpretation). Even pronouncing it can be challenging, but verisimilitude is a helpful term used in such disciplines as philosophy, literature, and law. It is also important to biblical archaeologists as I came to observe in our production of Go Now to Shiloh, when Dr. Scott Stripling spoke of it during excavations in Israel. In Jesus and His World: The Archaeological Evidence, Craig Evans defines verisimilitude as, “the resemblance or likeness of the way that things [the known world of history] really were” (Evans, 1-8). Evans likewise emphasized that greater attention should be given to the way in which the Bible matches the discoveries of Archaeology in contrast to how some attempt to use archaeology to prove the bible is from God. I believe his perspective is valid and we must be careful not to make assertions about various archaeological discoveries which purport to prove the Bible. Archaeology is a human endeavor, subject to presuppositions, error, and human bias. Its information and findings must be used with caution, especially by those of us not credentialed in the field. However, if used correctly, the findings of archaeology can be an extremely important tool for defending the faith. It not only provides context to the biblical world, but it also aides us in demonstrating the reliability and trustworthiness of the biblical text. While the discovery of a first-century oil lamp in Jerusalem doesn’t’ prove that Jesus taught a parable about ten virgins and their oil lamps (Matthew 25), it does reveal that even the smallest of details given in scripture are consistent with reality. Similarly, discovering an inscription from Corinth about a man named Erastus (discussed below) doesn’t prove that the apostle Paul was inspired of God. It does, however, show in part that the bible writers can be trusted. Verisimilitude exists between the information contained in scripture and the known world of history. In connecting spiritual truths to a real historical context, the bible writers were meticulous in describing real people, places, events, political systems, religious practices, beliefs and customs. Therefore, when a bible writer makes a claim that a said prophecy or written document is from God (inspired) we should expect his information to be accurate in every detail. Because God is all-knowing, the Bible’s references to people, places, and events should be consistent with the facts of history. Archaeology, despite its bias, can aide us in proving this assertion. If the bible writers are accurate in their recording of history, and if what they prophesied and predicted about the future can be corroborated by historical fact, then we can trust them on matters of theology. For example, as a Christian, I believe in Jesus because of the biblical record of Matthew’s testimony (and others like Mark, Luke, John etc.; cf. John 20:30-31). After years of traveling through Israel, reading the works of history, and considering the discoveries of Archaeology, I have come to know that Matthew is a trustworthy witness and accurate historian. He knew what he was talking about! He was not only a contemporary to the times in which the ministry of Jesus occurred, but the literary value of his work is supreme. He doesn’t make outlandish claims that are incompatible with science or the facts of history. His words have a divine character that are lofty and sublime (as with all the books of the bible). It reflects a sacred beauty that mere mortals could never match. This, along with the ability to cross examine and verify Matthew’s testimony against other witnesses (i.e. Mark, Luke, John, and Paul) and the findings of archaeology, serve to create an unwavering faith within us. Or, as Luke puts it, a faith with certainty (Luke 1:4). While I personally did not witness the resurrection of Jesus with my own eyes, I have full confidence and assurance in the testimony of the bible writers who did. As Luke revealed at the beginning of his narrative, the bible writers undertook an investigatory mission of their own so that we “may know the exact truth” about the things taught by Jesus and what others have said about him (Luke 1:1-4). My own investigation has likewise led me to trust Luke's testimony. So, in what other ways can archaeology be used to show the “resemblance or likeness of the way that things really were?" Over the years, most of my study and video documentation has occurred in Israel, but my recent trips to Rome, Turkey, and Greece have given me the opportunity to broaden my investigation of the Bible writers who lived and worked outside of Israel. Specifically, regarding the letters of Paul and the city of Corinth the argument from verisimilitude is the same. Archaeology doesn’t prove Paul’s theological assertions in his letters to the Romans and Corinthians, but it does reveal a match between his reference to titles, people, cultural practices, and the facts of history. Corinth, the context of the Corinthian letters (and the likely place from which he composed the book of Romans), and the archaeological discoveries made there, reveal that Paul can be trusted as a trustworthy witness. He was without a doubt a contemporary of the time in which he wrote and a first-hand observer of the customs and people associated with the cities to whom he wrote, like Corinth. Consider, for example, Paul’s references to “running a race”, "the games", "boxing", "mirrors”, “a perishable crown”, and a "judgment seat" (1 Corinthians 9:24-26; 13:12; 2 Corinthians 5:10). Did these things exist in Corinth? Were they widely known? Isn’t boxing, and other organized athletic events, only a modern development? How would the recipients of Corinth know what Paul was speaking about if mirrors had not existed? Weren’t mirrors a later invention thus leading us to think that maybe a much later redactor or editor had inserted information into the text? Not at all. Because of the discoveries of archaeology made at and near Corinth, we know that mirrors, gymnasiums, running tracks for athletic competitions, boxing, crowns made out of perishable plants (such as olive trees and celery; cf. 1 Corinthians 9:25), and judgments seats (bemas; cf. Acts 18:12) were all a part of the culture at Corinth when Paul penned his letters. These items and depictions of their likeness were discovered among the ruins of various Greek and Roman towns and are now on permanent display in museums scattered throughout Greece. On one of our most recent bible lands tours, I was privileged to talk about these discoveries and many others. One of the more fascinating discoveries of archaeology I encountered at Corinth was the famed Erastus inscription, which can still be observed in the precise location where it was found. It, like the discoveries mentioned above, is but another example of verisimilitude. Unearthed in 1929, a team of excavators discovered in the ancient roadway a Latin inscription carved deep into a limestone rock. The rock was being used as a paver within a plaza near the ancient theater. Letters found in the inscription were 7-inches tall and were probably at one time filled with bronze. The inscription reads “Erastus pro aedilitate sua pecunia stravit and is translated as “Erastus in return for his aedileship laid [the pavement] at his own expense.” It’s wording precisely matches something found in Paul’s letter to the Romans. From history we know that governments did not always have the funds to pay for new construction, so wealthy citizens or patrons often financed the construction of public buildings and roads. Personally, I have observed numerous inscriptions of this type throughout the ruins of the Roman world. Some are on columns of temples, archways of an agora, etc. all of which were meant to honor a donor who made possible the construction or materials. The honorific information might be inscribed with a name, title, act, and occasionally additional information or reference to an Emperor or deity. The Erastus inscription at Corinth specifically identifies Erastus as holding the office of aedile which was a high-ranking public office within a Roman city who functioned as the governmental appointee of public works. The Greek equivalent to aedile (found in the inscription) is oikonomos and this is precisely the title given to a Christian convert named Erastus to whom Paul mentions in Romans 16:23 (a letter likely penned from Corinth). Variously rendered in the biblical translations as “treasurer” “chamberlain”, and “director of public works”, oikonomos is defined in the New International Dictionary of New Testament Words as a city manager or steward. This title was used throughout the Roman empire along with official job titles such as consulship, praetorship, plebeian tribunate, quaestorship, and military tribunate. Could, therefore, the Erastus inscription refer to the man identified by Paul in Romans 16:23, Acts 19:22, and 2 Timothy 4:20? Because the date of the Erastus inscription is contested, and because we do not have a further inscription which reads “Erastus the treasurer of Corinth who became a Christian and friend to the apostle Paul,” we cannot say with 100% certainty that the donor of the pavement and the man identified in Romans 16:23 are one and the same. Nevertheless, its seems highly likely and almost certain that they are one in the same, and here is why: (1) we know that people from various social and economic stations in life were converted to Christ such as Lydia, the Philippian Jailer, Crispus the Synagogue ruler, and Cornelius a Roman Centurion, so it is plausible that a city treasurer would accept Jesus as well; (2) Erastus was a unique name within the Roman empire found only in the archaeological record at Corinth; (3) because in Romans 16:23 the exact Greek equivalent to the title found in the inscription at Corinth was used in reference to the Erastus who became a Christian. The evidence is sound, and the connection is plausible. But, if in some peculiar and rare instance another man of history named Erastus, bearing the title of city manager were to be discovered, and was likewise proven to be an atheist throughout the entire time that Paul wrote his letters, we would still have reason to consider the Erastus inscription helpful to believers. The reference in Romans 16:23 would still bear “the resemblance or likeness of the way that things [the known world of history] really were”. Truly, the Erastus inscription discovered at Corinth bears both a name and title found within the city in which Paul lived and worked. It is also consistent with the chronology of Paul’s life. The Bible matches the discoveries of archaeology, and the Erastus inscription is a prime example of that precise correlation. Paul’s characterization of people, their titles and their practices is historically accurate. He demonstrates at every turn verisimilitude between his writings and the facts of history. The bible overall describes real persons, places, events, governments, religious practices, beliefs and customs. Archaeological discoveries clarify and corroborate the bible, and the bible produces faith and conviction in our knowledge of God and certainty of salvation (Romans 10:17; 1 John 5:13-15). Praise be to God for his infallible and powerful word, and for the tools of science we have at our disposal. The plethora of discoveries that continue to surface throughout the Bible lands, especially ones like the Erastus Inscription, are both exciting and remarkable. There is no other book like the bible; nothing comes close. JWM

By John W. Moore When visitors arrive to the old city of Jerusalem, they are met by a cacophony of sounds and an array of odors and fragrances. They also encounter the hustle and bustle of residents moving through the crowded streets on their way to the market, or perhaps to their favorite restaurant or place of residence.In the northern section of the Muslim and Christian quarters, visitors and residents alike may also find themselves having to navigate a line of Christian pilgrims carrying a large wooden cross en route to the church of the Holy Sepulcher. These pilgrims believe they are retracing the steps of Jesus as they slowly make their way along the traditional Via Dolorosa, (i.e. “way of sorrows”). This was the path taken by Jesus when he bore his cross from “the Praetorium” (Mark 15:16)[1] to “Golgotha”, the place of execution (Matthew 27:33). The traditional location for this path begins in the courtyard at the Catholic Church of the Flagellation in the Muslim quarter, near Omariya Moslem College; the location of the now extinct fortress Antonia that had once overlooked the Temple complex. The Via Dolorosa ends at the church of the Holy Sepulcher and evidence suggests that this may very well be the actual location for both the crucifixion and burial of Jesus [2]; but, the beginning point for the Via Dolorosa is debated. The argument centers upon identifying the actual location for the trial and condemnation of Jesus at the Roman Praetorium (John 18:28). An examination of the term praetorium used within ancient sources, along with the remains of the western palace of King Herod the Great discovered by archaeology (at the site of the present day “Tower of David"), and various connections made in scripture, offers compelling evidence that the church of Flagellation was not the site of this terrible miscarriage of justice. Instead, it seems highly probable that the Lord’s trial before Pilate was conducted at or near King Herod’s palace and three-towered fortress at the crest of the western hill in the old city of Jerusalem. These places are in the areas of the present-day “Citadel and Tower of David”, the Kishle (and old Ottoman and British Prison), and near the parking lot of the Armenian Church of St. James (all three located south of Jaffa gate). Ancient Sources Related to the Location of the Praetorium The Praetorium, where Jesus was scourged and condemned, was the official residence of a Roman governor, and the word originally referred to “the building or tent that served as the headquarters for military generals, governors, and traveling officials.”[3] The gospels indicate that Pilate was residing in Jerusalem when he confronted and condemned Jesus to death.They also mention that Jesus appeared before Pilate in the “Praetorium” (John 18:28, 33; Mark. 15:16). Mark then identifies the praetorium as "the palace" (Mark. 15:16; cf. Acts 23:35), and Shimon Gibson likewise asserts that the palace of Herod was “the seat of the Roman governor when in residence in Jerusalem, the praetorium.”[4] Both Josephus (War 2.31) and Philo (Legatio Ad Gaium 38.299)[5] mention that King Herod’s palace served as the residence of the Roman governor when he came to Jerusalem. All of this suggest that during the feast of Passover when Jesus was crucified, Pilate resided at King Herod’s palace on the western hill (see the footnote and use of the term lithostratos from John 19:13). [6] Herod’s Palace vs. the Fortress Antonia As mentioned above, one of the most popular sites identified as the location for the trial of Jesus was at the Fortress Antonia, which was located at the northwest corner of Herod’s temple complex. However, both modern and ancient sources typically do not identify this as a type of residence palace for royalty. [7] Built sometime before 31 BCE in honor of Herod’s client magistrate Mark Antony (the famed military leader and ally of Julius Caesar),[8] Josephus tells us that the location of the Antonia fortress was situated at the north end of the temple mount, possessed a number of amenities, and even suggested that it was akin to a “royal palace” (Wars, V. 21.401). However, compared to his elaborate descriptions of Herod’s lavish palace located on the western hill, the Fortress Antonia seems to have been an unlikely residence for Rome’s highest ranking official in Palestine. Considering the palaces of Herod found elsewhere in Israel and Jordan, the Antonia fortress would not have been nearly as luxurious or comparable in size nor in opulence. When describing Herod’s Jerusalem palace (built sometime around 25 BCE) [9] versus the Antonia fortress near the temple, Josephus gives us a clear indication that the two were not to be compared; revealing that Herod’s personal residence was even more luxurious than the temple itself: Accordingly, in the fifteenth year of his reign, Herod rebuilt the temple, and encompassed a piece of land about it with a wall; which land was twice as large as that before enclosed. The expenses he laid out upon it were vastly large also, and the riches about it were unspeakable. A sign of which you have in the great cloisters that were erected about the temple, and the citadel which was on its north side. The cloisters he built from the foundation, but the citadel he repaired at a vast expense; nor was it other than a royal palace, which he called Antonia, in honor of Antony. He also built himself a palace in the upper city, containing two very large and most beautiful apartments; to which the holy house itself could not be compared [in largeness]. Wars, 1.21.401-402. Josephus’ reference to Herod’s personal palace clearly places it in the “upper city,” and from other descriptions identified in relationship to city of Jerusalem overall we know that it was positioned just south of Jaffa gate, situated along the western wall of the upper city (Wars, V.IV.176-183). Shimon Gibson maintains that the length of the complex must have been “140 meters from north to south…and 140 meters from east to west.” [10] Gibson also maintains that the northern boundary would have begun somewhere within the area of the courtyard of the present day citadel, and that its southern boundary would have gone as far as the present-day Armenian Church of St. James.[11] Accordingly, this seems to be much better suited for Rome’s high ranking official and a much safer place to reside—so near to an entry and exit point of Jerusalem, away from the heart of the city, and which possessed a three-towered fortification system. The location for Herod’s palace so closely adjoined to a citadel structure with large defensive towers offers further evidence that this would have been the likely residence of the Roman Praetorium. [12] Josephus’s reference to the upper city towers as being a part of “the citadel” is for good reason.This part of the city constituted the westernmost limits of the city’s expansion during the days of King Herod the Great. [13] Two major finger-like spurs jut out from the Judean arch of the hill country, forming the geographical foundation and development for the history of Jerusalem.[14] The first, Mount Ophel and the Temple Mount were bounded on the east by the Kidron Valley and on the west by the Tyropean Valley. This was the location for the ancient City of David and the temple to the north. The northern part of this spur was vulnerable to attack and was thus protected by the Antonia fortress. The second major spur which juts away from the Judean ridge exists to the west of Ophel and is bounded on the east by the Tyropean Valley and to the west by the Hinnom Valley. This area, known as the Western Hill, was likewise vulnerable to attack from the north, so both the Hasmoneans and King Herod the Great established fortifications there.[15] Thus, the establishment of a palace near a strong military fortification, out and away from the center of a tumultuous inner city often bent on rebellion, would seem to be the ideal location for such a structure, and a likely place of residence for a high ranking Roman official. Still further, the description given by Josephus of King Herod’s palace and adjoining citadel are truly befitting of a residence fit for the highest of magistrates (Wars, 2.IV.176-183).After a lengthy discussion regarding the grandeur and beauty of three protective towers which he named for a wife, friend, and brother (one of which whose tower base remains today), Josephus says that “the king had a palace inwardly there to adjoined, which exceeds as my ability to describe it” (Wars, 2.IV.176). From a discussion mentioned above, we learn that this palatial structure was made up of “two very large and most beautiful compartments…the one apartment he named Caesareum, and the other Agrippina” (Wars, 1.21.401-402). Josephus also gives attention is given to its size, the number of beds, and the length of its beams and vast porticoes.He also discusses aspects of its opulence with mention of fine vessels, precious stones, and beautiful ornamentation. He likewise gives attention to the unique pillars and porticoes. Josephus continues with the following: There were moreover several groves of trees, and long walks through them, with deep canals, and cisterns, that in several parts were filled with brazen statues, through which the water ran out. There were withal many dove-courts of tame pigeons about the canal; (182) but, indeed, it is not possible to give a complete description of these palaces and the very remembrance of them is a torment to one, as putting one in mind what vastly rich buildings that fire which was kindled by the robbers hath consumed. (Wars, V.4.181-182) Two times—once here in sections 181-182, and earlier, Josephus mentions the impossibility to adequately describe the grandeur of Herod’s palace, not only because of its elaborate furnishings and design, but also because of the pain it caused him to remember something so elegant that subsequently came to lie in ruin. Jewish factions who had taken control of Jerusalem prior to its destruction in A.D. 70 by the Romans destroyed much of the palace. As modern readers, we are left with a similar dismay, but ours is due to being unable to see and experience it for ourselves. We are left with only a great deal of speculation and wonder as we seek somehow to visualize such a tremendous place. Models have been created which give us only a small window into the past with regard to its beauty and size,[16] but thankfully in recent years we have been able to gain at least a better understanding of it from the discoveries of archaeology. Archaeology and the Herodian Palace While only a few artifacts remain which would give us confirmation of Josephus’ detailed descriptions of Herod’s Jerusalem palace, there are nevertheless some important items to consider that deepen our understanding. First, excavations conducted between 1973 and 1978 by Magen Broshi and Shimon Gibson unearthed a number of important items on the western hill which have revealed a highly developed area of the city. Included in their finds were “extramural Iron Age remains, substantial segments of the Hasmonean city wall, and a gateway which led into Herod’s palace on the western slope.”[17] This gateway, which is sometimes referred to as the “Hidden Gate” (see the local park signage associated with the site) has within recent years become the object of much discussion. Shimon Gibson admits that when first excavating the site he had not fully understood the nature of this gateway located midway along the upper's city western defensive wall. In his book The Final Days of Jesus: The Archaeological Evidence, he now identifies this gate as the Gate of the Essenes referred to by Josephus in his description of the boundaries of the “first wall” of Jerusalem (Wars. 5.145). Gibson likewise connects this gate with the place of judgment (Gabbatha) mentioned in John 19:13.[18] His book offers compelling evidence of the discoveries made there and the various connections between scripture, ancient sources, and the architectural design and layout of this entryway that he claims was used only by King Herod and was called the Gate of the Essenes because of its westward facing direction where an encampment of the Essenes is surmised.[19] Second, consider the discovery of other palatial structures and buildings contemporary to that of King Herod’s palace in Jerusalem. The Hellenistic influences and motifs discovered at Herod’s palace at Masada, and in the Jewish quarter palatial mansion in Jerusalem (at the Whol Archaeological Museum), give us a better picture of the sophistication and elaborate designs that were in all likelihood incorporated into Herod’s palace at Jerusalem. At Masada, Herod’s Dead Sea fortress, one can observe an ornate terraced, three-tiered villa with beautifully adorned frescoes, staircase towers, elaborate water systems, bathhouses, swimming pools, a columbarium, etc.[20] Consider also the discovery of the palatial mansion discovered by N. Avigad at Masada which covered an area of about 10,000 square feet and was designed like a typical roman insula. According to Arav and Rouseau it possessed three major connecting buildings with mosaic floors leading to several rooms and a large banquet hall 35 feet in length. The mansion possessed “several rooms covered with panels painted in bright, varied colors, imitating marble slabs that only emperors and kings could afford. Other walls are decorated with fruit and leaf designs either in panels or friezes… [and equipped] with luxurious bathrooms, steam baths with underfloor heating, and ritualistic baths.”[21] Third, excavations made under the Kishle (Ottoman Prison immediately to south of the present-day Citadel), along with those made within the courtyard of the present day Citadel, and still other excavations done within the crusader moat surrounding the present-day citadel, “have suggested that several walls unearthed in these excavations, belong to the foundations of the palace…and created a raised artificial podium” upon which the palace stood.[22] These excavation areas also revealed the remains of an “impressive rock pool with wide steps leading to it (dating to the Byzantine period) and a rock cut installation from the Hasmonaean period (140 B.C. to 63 B.C). According to Peleg-Barat, excavators Svan and Solar suggested that these rock cut pools were “incorporated into Herod’s palace.”[23] Finally, portions of monumental ionic columns, column bases, and capitals were discovered in secondary use on the southwestern hill. While not found in situ, they are believed to have come from Herod’s temple.[24] Conclusion While the data regarding the palace of King Herod in Jerusalem is far from what one might prefer, what does exist is never the less compelling and of great interest. Information gathered from the Bible, archaeology, and especially Josephus can offer for us a unique perspective and understanding on first-century Jerusalem. Perhaps, as time goes by, more will be discovered, but at least for the moment we can find some satisfaction in knowing that such a palace and accompanying citadel did in fact exist as revealed by the documents of history. The geographical elements visible today, the narrative of long-ago historians, and archaeological remains are enough to keep investigators excited about possible future discoveries. Through the process of further study and new evidence which may come to light, we are compelled to clarify and suggest more compelling and plausible explanations for the events of scripture, especially with regard to the location of the trial of Jesus before Pilate. While specific detailed information about the “place of the pavement” is inconclusive, I think enough information has surfaced that would warrant a highly favorable response to the position that Jesus was scourged and brought to trial at Herod’s luxurious palace and adjoining citadel located in the immediate area just south of the modern day “Citadel of David.” Near this location Jesus might also have been presented to the crowd at the "Hidden Gate", where Pilate said "behold the man" (John 19:5). I'm sure many aren't too keen on overturning years of tradition associated with the traditional site of the Lord's scourging and path to the cross, but sometimes tradition can be wrong. Endnotes [1] Unless otherwise stated, all scripture quotations are taken from the 1995 edition of the New American Standard Bible [2] See Bahat, Dan. “Does the Holy Sepulchre Church Mark the Burial of Jesus?” Biblical Archaeology Review 12, no. 3 (1986): 26–45. [3] Aernie, Matthew D. “Praetorium.” Ed. John D. Barry et al. The Lexham Bible Dictionary 2016. (compare Caesar, De bello civili. 1.76.2; 3.82.1; Cicero, Div. 1.72.33; In Verrem. 2.4.65). [4] Gibson, Shimon, “The Trial of Jesus at the Jerusalem Praetorium.” The world of Jesus and the Early Church, ed, Chapter 7, p. 98. [5] Yonge, Charles Duke with Philo of Alexandria. The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995. [6] Additional evidence suggesting that the trial of Jesus took place at Herod’s palace in Jerusalem concerns a possible reference to a style of architecture in John’s gospel. When Pilate sat down at the judgment seat John tells us that it was at a place called “the stone pavement, and in Aramaic Gabbatha” (John 19:13). In Greek the place is called lithostratos, and both Todd Bolen (bibleplaces.com) and Marc Turnage (https://www.marcturnage.com/single-post/2017/09/20/pilates-pavement-the-lithostratos) make references to Steven Notley’s book, Jerusalem: City of the Great King, (Carta: Jerusalem, 2015; pp. 40-41) where Notley makes the argument that lithostratos refers to a paved floor with colorful tiles known as opus sectile. This type of floor design was used in the temple and in Herod’s palaces as discovered in Jericho, Masada, and Machaerus. Bolen and Turnage point to some of Notley’s arguments that include references to Josephus’ use of the term in describing the siege of the Roman army of Titus upon Herod’s Temple in A.D. 70. Josephus mentions this twice in reference to floor of the temple courts: “But one Julianus, a centurion in the Bithynian contingent…for wearing, like any other soldier, shoes thickly studded with nails, while running across the pavement (lithostratos) he slipped and fell on his back, with a loud clash of armor, which made the fugitives turn” (Wars 6.81-86; see 6.189). They also go on to suggest that lithostratos refers to the tiled floors that surrounded the two wings in Herod’s palace. I did not include this in the main body of the article due to the fact that I did not have access to Notley’s book to verify their analysis. [7] While Orit Peleg-Barkat does suggest that the Antonia Fortress could be thought of as a type of palace, and that having two palaces within one general location would be consistent with findings at Masada, Jericho, and Herodium, she freely admits that the Western Palace in Jerusalem was “more luxurious” [Peleg-Barkat, “Herod’s Western Palace in Jerusalem: Some New Insights.” Electrum Vol. 26 (2019) p.54]. [8] Orit Peleg-Barak says, “as much as we can infer from Josephus’ text, Herod constructed two palaces in the city. The earlier is the Antonia Fortress, named for his earlier patron, Mark Antony and therefore a pre-31 BCE date for tis construction is certain (the year which Octavian defeated Mark Antony in the Battle of Actium)” p. 54. [9] Orit Peleg-Barkat, p. 54. [10] Gibson - “The World of Jesus and the Early Church.” P. 110 [11] Ibid. [12] Netzer, Ehud, “The Missing Palaces in Jerusalem: Chapter Fifteen.” The Palaces of the Hasmoneans and Herod the Great. In his chapter, Netzer actually includes the citadel/towers as a part of the Herodian Palatial structure when he said that “any discussion of the palace in Jerusalem should also include the three towers in the area presently known as the Citadel, the highest point in the city at that time…whether these three towers were in fact an integral part of the main palace or merely auxiliary elements of sorts is, in our view , a minor point. Their proximity to the palace offered Herod not only greater security but also the opportunity to make occasional use of their palatial, no doubt exotic, facilities (situated at such high elevations)” pp. 127-128. [13] Avigad, Nahman, Discovering Jerusalem, pp. 81-83. [14] Avi-Yonah, Michael. “The Third and Second walls of Jerusalem.” Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2 (1968) p. 101. [15] Avi-Yonah pp. 101-102 and Netzer pp. 128-129. [16] For example, the first century model of Jerusalem designed by Michael Avi-Yonah. [17] Broshi, Magen, and Gibson, Shimon. “Excavations Along the Western and Southern Walls of the Old City of Jerusalem. Ancient Jerusalem p. 147. [18] On a personal visit to location of this excavation site I noticed that local signage, erected by Israeli officials, have identified this entry way and rock-cut steps as the “Hidden Gate.” [19] Gibson, 98-106. [20] Murphy O’connor, Jerome. The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. 381-385. [21] Rouseau, John J. and Arav, Rami. An Archaeological and Cultural Dictionary Rousseau, John J. and Arav, Rami; Jesus and His World Title: Jesus and His World: An Archaeological and Cultural Dictionary. P. 170. [22] Peleg-Barkat, Orit. p. 58. [23] Ibid. [24] Ibid., pp. 63-67. Bibliography Aernie, Matthew D. “Praetorium.” The Lexham Bible Dictionary. J. D. Barry and L. Wentz, editors. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2012. As found in the Logos Bible study software program. Avigad, Nahman, Discovering Jerusalem. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1980. Avi-Yonah, Michael. “The Third and Second walls of Jerusalem.” Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2 (1968) p. 101. Bahat, Dan. “Does the Holy Sepulchre Church Mark the Burial of Jesus?” Biblical Archaeology Review 12, no. 3 (1986): 26–45. Broshi, Magen, and Gibson, Shimon. “Excavations Along the Western and Southern Walls of the Old City of Jerusalem. Ancient Jerusalem, ed, Hillel Geva; Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1994. Galor, Katharina, and Bloedhorn, Hanswulf. The Archaeology of Jerusalem: From the Origins to the Ottomans. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2013. Gibson, Shimon. The Final Days of Jesus: The Archaeological Evidence. New York, Harper Collins, 2009. Gibson, Shimon, “The Trial of Jesus at the Jerusalem Praetorium.” The world of Jesus and the Early Church, ed, Craig A. Evans; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2011. Josephus, Flavius, translated by William Whiston. The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1987. Murphy-O’connor, Jerome. The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide (fifth edition). Oxford, 2008. Netzer, Ehud, “The Missing Palaces in Jerusalem: Chapter Fifteen.” The Palaces of the Hasmoneans and Herod the Great. Reprinted and Expanded Edition. Israel Exploration Society Jerusalem, 2001. New American Standard Bible: 1995 Update. La Habra, CA: The Lockman Foundation, 1995. Rouseau, John J. and Arav, Rami. Jesus and His World Title: Jesus and His World: An Archaeological and Cultural Dictonary. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995. Yonge, Charles Duke with Philo of Alexandria. The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995.

by John W. Moore When I first gazed upon what was discovered at Tel el-Qadi in the spring of 1998 my fellow students and I were in awe of what seemed to be testimony to the historicity and reliability of the biblical text. Located at the base of Mount Hermon in the northern territory of Israel, this historic place is home to some of the most significant archaeological discoveries of the 20th century. Beside the discovery of the well-known Tel-Dan stela of the 9th century B.C which mentions some of the Kings of Israel and the “house of David”, there sits at the northern top of the tel [1] the remains of a large altar, sacred service buildings, and a carefully designed raised platform that has all the marks of a temple like facility. Eerily similar to what existed in Jerusalem during the period of Solomon’s reign and beyond, the size of the altar, which ultimately developed at the site, was enormous. Its size was deduced from a huge well-preserved piece of stone in the shape of a horn that had obviously come from the corner of the now destroyed altar. This sacred precinct, along with the many other cultic items used in worship found at other places on the the tel [2] testify to various religious practices embraced by those who inhabited the lush environment located so near to the headwaters of the Jordan river. But, what were these cultic items doing there, and what could one determine by the discovery of the temenos (or sacred precinct) located near the crest of this ancient city? In 1 Kings 12:25-33 the Bible offers an answer. In approximately 931 B.C, after a period of economic hardship and dispute, Jeroboam and the northern tribes seceded from Judah and Benjamin and instituted a new religious holiday and priesthood. The Bible says that Jeroboam established temples on high places, made two calves of gold for worship, and built sacrificial altars at Dan in the north and Bethel to the south. The object of this worship and the sins of Jeroboam became the scorn of every faithful prophet and the measuring stick used to label disobedience to God (c.f. 1 Kings 16:2; 2 Kings 3:3; 17:21-22, etc.). However, were the discoveries made at Tel el-Qadi (mentioned above) the actual sacred implements and buildings identified in 1 Kings 12? To date, nothing has been discovered with an inscription saying, “I Jeroboam erected this altar.” Seldom did biblical characters leave their signature on a city or structure for posterity to know who built or established it. So, as with many material remains of antiquity, we are left with the question of whether or not there is a strong parallel and verisimilitude between the archaeological record and the Bible. In the case of Tel el-Qadi and the account of Jeroboam in 1 Kings 12, I suggest the parallel is extremely strong and that archaeologists have in all probability found remnants of the altar of Jeroboam. Consider the following: 1. Tel el-Qadi is Biblical Dan. The biblical description of Judges 18:7 fits the geographical characteristics belonging to Tel el-Qadi. Likewise, a discovery of a third century Greek votive inscription found near the sacred precinct identifies this place as Dan. [3] 2. A sacred area/platform or temenos at Dan of one half-acre in size was discovered. The lead archaeologist at Tel Dan between 1966-1993, Dr. Avraham Biran, identified three phases of a platform with its earliest phase going back to the time of Jeroboam in the late tenth century B.C.[4]. He also found “the remains of incense burners, a decorated incense stand, the heads of two male figurines, and a bowl decorated with a sign resembling a trident. The bowl contained fragmentary bones of sheep, goats and gazelles which had probably been sacrificed at the sanctuary.”[5] 3. Ample proof exists that the entire area at Tel Dan was an important Israelite cultic center. Evidence of incense offerings, votive offerings involving figurines, and some kind of water purification or libation rituals, and five standing stones at the gate entrance of the city (suggesting that were they probably cultic in nature). [6] 4. The location of Dan is an ideal location to attract worshippers. The lush and temperate climate of Dan, along with the large and impressive sacred precinct would no doubt have attracted people far beyond the walls of Dan, which of course was Jeroboam’s intent (1 Kings 12:29-20). Nevertheless, not all agree and once again we find an archaeologist disagreeing with another fellow archaeologist. Dr. Eran Arie from the University of Haifa says the following: “Since the site had been abandoned during the Iron IIa, Jeroboam I could not have erected a golden calf in the city and this biblical tradition should probably be understood against the background of the early 8th century BCE.” [7] . Arie arrived at his position after years of research and digging at the site, and yet he still disagrees with the respected and celebrated archaeologist Avrahim Biram. While as a casual observer I am inclined to place my confidence in the archaeological conclusions derived by Dr. Biran, but some do not, and are now being influenced by the conclusions and implications of Arie’s position. Take for example an article posted by Paul Davidson who makes some interesting and compelling insights about the use of calf worship in ancient Israel, but who nevertheless quotes from archaeologists who clearly believe that the story of Jeroboam as revealed in I Kings 12 is “anachronistic and propagandistic that we must suspect it of being a complete fabrication”[8]. So, how does a bible-believing Christian answer these kind of attacks on the reliability of scripture? In my 25 years of study, exploring, and learning from archaeologists, I can tell you some things that are important to note before becoming alarmed over the conclusions of the critics (and I must say also, before we likewise proffer information that might be advantageous to our cause). First, always remember that archaeologists are subject to biases and prejudices of their own, and that they certainly don’t always agree with each other. While the evidence is often indisputable [9], the interpretation of the evidence is often debated. With almost every archaeological site I have visited in Israel, I can generally find at least two archaeologists with dissenting views about something at the site. Second, archaeology has limitations. Most tels are only partially excavated and the evidence is nearly always fragmentary and incomplete. Many artifacts and remains are yet to be discovered. Consider for example the belief that archaeologists had reached bedrock at the Millo (2 Samuel 5:9) in Jerusalem, and that nothing else was to be discovered which might suggest the reality of a Davidic palace as revealed in 2 Samuel 5. The discoveries of Israeli archaeologist Eilat Mazar, however, changed this when in the early 2000’s she discovered a palatial like structure at the very location where previous archaeologists had said nothing else was to be discovered at the site believing they had dug to bedrock [10]. Third, it must be remembered that the absence of evidence does not prove an assertion. For example, there was once a popular assertion that the Bible’s reference to ivory being used by Jerusalemites during the first temple period (1 Kings 10:18; Amos 3:15, etc.) was a mere embellishment or conflation, simply because none had ever been discovered in Jerusalem. The recent discovery of ivory from the first temple period at the Givati parking lot excavation in Jerusalem has dispelled this false assertion and proven once again the dangers of embracing the “absence of evidence” approach [11]. It must always be remembered that the absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. When it comes down to it, we might indeed find ourselves debating the merits of a given artifact or site of antiquity and discuss whether or not it proves some aspect of the Bible’s reliability. But, what to me is exceedingly obvious is that of all the religious books in the world which demands a moral acquiescence of its adherents there is none superior to the Bible. In terms of its moral code, marks of divine inspiration, and historical reliability the Bible stands far and above any book that has ever been composed. We do not have to have an inscription which reads “I Jeroboam have erected this altar,” but we do have to have a reason for what we believe (1 Peter 3:15). There are many, many reasons to believe the Bible, and a careful examination of its pages will demonstrate an unmatched parallel with the facts of history. The discoveries at Tel Dan reveal such a parallel and whether you believe the existence of the altar discovered at tel Dan is in fact the altar belonging to Jeroboam, is immaterial. What is significant is that there are many other reasons for believing the Bible to be reliable and accurate. The city of Dan has been discovered, an altar is there, and vast amounts of other evidence exists in many other places to help the reader to see that the events recorded in scripture occurred within a real historical context and in real geographical setting. The skeptics have continued to hammer away at the bible with their critical blows in an attempt to break apart and dismantle its message, and yet it continues to stand the test of time. Generations have defended it. Great men and women have lived by it, and many intelligent and reasoned men and women of history have believed it. You can too. Endnotes [1] An artificial mound with the destruction layers of ancient cities; one on top of the other. [2] Other items discovered include raised standing stones, incense altar, votive libations site, incese shovel, sacrificial bones, [3] Laughlin, John C. H. “The Remarkable Discoveries at Tel Dan,” Biblical Archaeology Review 7, no. 5 (1981): 20–37. [4] Biran, Avraham. Biblical Dan. Israel Exploration Society: Jerusalem 1994. 159-234. [5] Laughlin., p. 28. [6] Biran., p. 245. [7] Arie, Eran, “Reconsidering the Iron Age II Strata at Tel Dan: Archaeological and Historical Implications”, Tel Aviv 35: 6–64 (2008). [8] https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2016/04/10behold-your-gods-o-israel-the-golden-calves-of-aaron-and-jeroboam. (Davidson quotes from Thomas Romer and Israel Finkelstein). [9] I say often because at times the provenance of some artifacts are disputed. Ancient artifacts means money and sadly some have become quite proficient in creating forgeries being passed off as legitimate. [10] See The Palace of King David: Excavations at the Summit of the City of David by Eilat Mazar. (Pub: Shoham Academic Research). [11] https://www.timesofisrael.com/were-first-temple-jerusalemites-living-in-lap-of-luxury-rare-ivory-finds-offer-clue/

by Jordan Moore Years ago, my HVAC boss surprised each employee with a generous gift. After several weeks of grueling labor in the hot summer attics, in addition to our wages, each of us received a brand-new Yeti soft-sided cooler. We were grateful and excited because these coolers come at a premium (and most of us would not have used our own money to purchase one). Nearly a decade later, my cooler had been put through the paces. As an avid outdoorsman, its use has ranged from storing fish fillets, deer meat, dove breasts, and of course, lots of ice, waters, snacks, and soft drinks. Recently, I went to unzip the cooler and the pull came right off its track. I thought it was going to be time to retire the cooler but decided to browse YouTube to see if anyone had a quick fix. Surprisingly, I found several accounts of individuals who had similar issues and Yeti was willing to send them a brand-new cooler, despite their stated warranties having expired. Not only were they sending out replacement coolers, but they were sending out the updated version of the cooler! So, I submitted a claim and sure enough, Yeti gave me three options to choose from to replace my cooler – no questions asked! After lots of research into which option I preferred, I selected the same model that I had, but with an updated closure using an extremely strong magnet. I liked the design because it eliminated the potential for future zipper failure. The one hang-up that I had was that the magnetic closure device would only stay open if you manually held it open. This makes it somewhat difficult to load with contents without someone’s help, or with an object to hold it open. Despite the one perceived flaw, I was certainly ecstatic to receive the new cooler without having to pay for it (again!), and immediately started putting it to use. But it wasn’t two months before a new and improved version of the very model that I’d chosen was released. Now the cooler with the magnetic closure strip was designed to stay open on its own! Shamefully, my initial reaction was one of disappointment and irritation. I thought, “You’re kidding me! I literally just got this brand-new cooler and they’ve already come out with a better model!” But I quickly snapped back into reality and realized that I had not a thing to complain about and absolutely no reason to be disappointed. Though a mostly benign example, this issue of “there’s always something better” can manifest itself in our lives in much greater degrees – and if we’re not careful can cost us our souls. How quickly we can turn from gratitude to ingratitude; from contentment to greed; from satisfaction to covetousness. The Bible has much to say about this: “Whoever loves money never has enough; whoever loves wealth is never satisfied…” (Eccl. 5:10) “Keep your lives free from the love of money and be content with what you have…” (Heb. 13:5) “Be on your guard against all kinds of greed; life does not consist in an abundance of possessions.” (Lk. 12:15) “Those who trust in their riches will fall, but the righteous will thrive like a green leaf.” (Prov. 11:28) “For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil, for which some have strayed from the faith in their greediness and pierced themselves through with many sorrows.” (1 Tim. 6:10) Sadly, so often we exchange riches for something of far greater value. Ahab exchanged (murdered) Naboth for a small parcel of land (1 Kings 21:1-16); Gehazi lied to obtain Naaman’s possessions and was stricken with leprosy (2 Kings 5:20-27); Achan plundered Jericho and lost his life and the lives of his children (Josh. 7:10-26); Delilah prompted Samson’s demise for 1100 pieces of silver (Jud. 16:5); Judas betrayed Jesus for 30 pieces of silver (Matt. 26:14-16). Are you on the verge of exchanging something of far greater value for fleeting riches? Perhaps even your own soul?

Likely the most memorable quote from “The Three Musketeers” is the motto: “all for one and one for all.” But long before Dumas ever penned those words in association with the musketeers, a similar sounding (but different) sentiment was found richly rooted in scripture. Five times, the life and death of Jesus is spoken of as a “once for all” occasion (Rom. 6:10; Heb. 7:27; 9:12, 26; 10:10). Consider the gravity of this three-word statement: "Once" Under the Law of Moses, the High Priest was first required to bring a sacrifice for himself, and then he could make the sin offering for the people (Heb. 7:27; Lev. 16:1-31). But our sinless High Priest didn’t need to offer a “pre-sacrifice” before the “real” sacrifice. In this regard, he only had to make a sacrifice once. Additionally, the sin offering was to be made year…after year…after year (Ex. 30:10; Lev. 16:34). Because the blood of animals isn’t capable to take away sin, this meant that there were thousands of sacrificial animals over the centuries (Heb. 10:4). But even an infinite supply of sacrificial animals would still never be enough. Jesus’ blood is different – it’s sufficient! His blood is fully capable of atoning for my sins! Whereas hundreds of animals were needed previously, a better sacrifice was only needed to be sought out once – Jesus was the only one that was needed! Furthermore, there is also no need for Jesus to be offered as the same sacrifice, again and again (Heb. 9:26-28). He was the only sacrifice needed and His sacrifice was only needed once to do the job. Though He resurrected, never again will Jesus need to suffer and die on my behalf. Though new sins are committed every day, never again will Jesus’ blood need to be spilled to wash away those sins. His spilling of blood was needed once (Rom. 6:9-10), and it continually “cleanses us from all sin” (1 Jn. 1:7). "For" Sadly, Jesus died “for” or, “because of” me. It is my fault, and yours, that Jesus had to endure the cross. Because a Holy God demands punishment of sin, Jesus stood as a propitiation – a way to appease God’s wrath (Rom. 3:25). If it wasn’t for our sins, Jesus would never have had to die. Moreover, Jesus died “for” or, “in place of” me. Jesus’ sacrifice is substitutionary (1 Pet. 3:18). Like a substitute teacher stands in for the regular teacher, so Jesus endured the cross for me – in my place. I was guilty and deserved punishment, but Jesus stood in for me. Amazingly, Jesus died “for” or, “in exchange of” me. Just as money is exchanged for goods, Jesus endured punishment for my redemption. He exchanged his life for mine – He experienced physical death for the right to buy me back out of spiritual death. He loved me so much that he saw his blood as equal currency to my salvation (Acts 20:28); just as a buyer sees his purchase as equal to the currency that he gives in exchange for it. "All" Jesus died for all in that he died for every person (2 Cor. 5:15). There’s not a single human being that Jesus didn’t die for. Not only was his sacrifice sufficient as the only one needed, but it was the only one needed for every human being to ever walk the face of the earth. Some estimate that over 100 billion people have lived over the course of time. Jesus’ death was offered on behalf of every single one of them. What’s more, His death has established a monopoly on all roads that lead to salvation – there’s just one, through the Lord Jesus Christ (Acts 4:12). Jesus also died for all in that he died for every sin. It is promised to us that “if we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness” (1 Jn. 1:9). There’s not a sin that we can commit that Jesus’ sacrifice is not powerful enough to blot out. There’s not a sin that we can commit that Jesus’ grace and heart is not willing to forgive. Jesus died for all in that the power of His death lasts into every moment in time (Heb. 9:12). His perfect sacrifice obtained redemption for me, eternally. Forever is my salvation secure because of Him. No one and nothing, except my own stubborn rebellion, can pluck me from His hand (Rom. 8:35-39). One for all: what an amazing thought. In return, may we be all for One. -Jordan Moore

by Jordan Moore We’ve recently started implementing thumping as a means of discipline for our one-year-old. When she throws a fit and screams out, we’ll thump her lip to communicate that what she used her mouth for was not appropriate. When she throws her food on the floor, we’ll thump her hand to indicate that it was her hand that was not used in a proper way. This helps her to properly associate the consequences with her actions. Naturally, she gets really offended and begins to cry – not because the thump was really that hard and badly hurt, but because she didn’t like that we disciplined her. It turns out, her older brother (5 years old) despises when his baby sister is punished. The first time he witnessed a thump and her subsequent response, I noticed a few moments later that he’d gotten up from his seat and walked over to caress her head and wipe her tears. When I asked him what he was doing, he began to well up with big crocodile tears and lashed out at me with, “Don’t hurt my baby sister!” He didn’t understand that the discipline was to instruct his baby sister and to help her learn what was a good choice and what was a poor choice. Fast forward a few weeks and we were reading from our children’s Bible about Jesus’ death on the cross. This provided opportunity for discussion about how much God loves us and a time of explanation that Jesus died on the cross to take the punishment that we deserve when we sin. The next night, a thump was doled out to the baby and what happened next was something I’ll never forget. The little boy that had previously lashed out at me, turned and said, “I should have taken her thump.” When I asked why, he said, “Because I love her and that’s like what Jesus did.” In its simplest and purest form, the explanation of love is absolutely the catalyst for Jesus’ self-sacrifice. But consider that when we dive even deeper into the complex nature of the sacrifice of Jesus (and begin to understand the “why” of Jesus’ sacrifice) our understanding of His love is even greater magnified: Jesus died to satisfy God’s holy wrath and endure my punishment. Sin is ugly and atrocious. It’s antithetical to the nature of God. He despises and is repulsed by sin. His holy and perfect nature is transcendent above sin, such that it cannot associate with it, and He must righteously punish the one who has transgressed. In this context, the word that the Bible uses to describe the sacrifice of Jesus is propitiation (Rom. 3:25). The idea is that the punishment for sin has been inflicted and God’s wrath is appeased. Jesus died to redeem me from the grasp of sin and Satan. Even though God despises sin, He still desperately loves us and wants us to return to him. Unfortunately, as sinners, we have become slaves of sin (Rom. 6:17) and have been taken captive by the devil (2 Tim. 2:25-26). It’s as if we have pledged our allegiance to the Devil, and Christ, through his death was able to redeem us (buy us back) out of that enslavement (Rom. 3:24). Jesus died to justify me before God. Not only did Jesus endure my punishment and purchase me back from sin, but he also died so that he could stand with me before God and declare me as pardoned and righteous. He is “both just and the justifier” (Rom. 3:26). I’ve not merely evaded punishment, but I’ve also been forgiven! What a glorious thought! Jesus died to reconcile me. Jesus loves me so much that not only did he endure the sacrifice to take away my punishment, purchase me back from sin, and pardon me before God – but also, so that I can be friends with God again. Sometimes, when humans forgive it doesn’t always mean that friendship is restored. Not so, with God. Previously enemies, now friends (Rom. 5:10-11). Reconciliation with God means that he has once again extended a handshake of fellowship to me. May we constantly remind ourselves of the awesome love of Christ and dig deeper into the complex nature of His sacrifice!

People have been struggling with infertility for thousands of years. Infertility is even in the background of several well-known Bible stories (the parents of Isaac, Jacob/Esau, Samuel, Samson, and John the Baptist all faced it). Romans 15:4 teaches, “whatever was written before was written for our learning, that we through the patience and comfort of the Scriptures might have hope.” Undoubtedly, one of the most hopeless times is during a bout with infertility. Isn’t it interesting that the Bible contains not just one, but several accounts of individuals dealing with it? It’s important to observe that faithfulness is not immunity from infertility. Zacharias and Elizabeth were “righteous before God” (Lk. 1:6). Yet, the very next verse states, “but they had no child because Elizabeth was barren” (Lk. 1:7). Furthermore, faithfulness to God doesn’t mean you’re not going to struggle with the fallout of that circumstance. Notice that the same difficulties that people experience today with infertility are the very same struggles recorded of those in scripture: Great anguish: During infertility, Hannah said, “I am a woman of sorrowful spirit” (1 Sam. 1:15). So great was her anguish that Eli mistook her misery for drunkenness. Infertility causes deep pain and hurt. Feelings of embarrassment: When Elizabeth finally conceived, she remarked that God took away her “reproach among people” (Lk. 1:24). Embarrassment and shame are natural reactions to this circumstance because of the expectation from others (and self) that couples will and should have children. Insensitive comments: Sadly, many people exacerbate that unfounded feeling of shame with comments like, “what are y’all waiting on?” or, “just stop fretting and you’re sure to get pregnant.” Even Hannah’s husband outrageously asked, “why is your heart grieved? Am I not better to you than ten sons?” (1 Sam. 1:8). Questions about one’s self-worth: As aforementioned comments persist, questions arise about one’s own self-worth or the love that others (even God) have for them. Jacob and Leah’s situation was complicated, but it wasn’t until God opened Leah’s womb (and not Rachel’s) that Leah was able to say “Surely my husband will love me now” (Gen. 29:32). Feelings of jealousy: “Now when Rachel saw that she bore Jacob no children, Rachel envied her sister” (Gen. 30:1). Struggles mount when others around you CAN conceive. Questions arise as to why sinners are blessed with children or why the unwedded are allowed to conceive. Jealousy and envy take root. Feelings of desperation: Sarai desperately wanted a family. To the point that she was willing to say to her husband, “Go, sleep with my slave; perhaps I may obtain children by her” (Gen. 16:2). Few ever explore an option akin to this, but that in no way means that the feelings of desperation are not there. Feelings of resentment: Despite it being her initial idea, “when [Sarai] saw that [Hagar] had conceived, her mistress became despised in her eyes” (Genesis 16:4). Even friends and loved ones can become the brunt of resentment simply because those friends and loved ones have been blessed with a child. A difficult question remains: in all the biblical cases of infertility, eventually God opens their womb to conceive…why does he not always do this, today? This was a question that Erin and I struggled with during our bout with infertility. And it’s a question that I still desperately wish I knew the answer to. But I do know this: our great Heavenly Father listened to, was aware of, and was in tune with the pain and hurt of each of these people. At the very least, perhaps that can bring us some measure of comfort. Ultimately, the above observations are helpful for everyone. It’s helpful to those in the middle of this struggle to know that they are not alone in those feelings. They are among other women (and men) of the past AND present who’ve experienced the same things. It is also helpful to those who have not struggled with infertility to hear and learn about the feelings of others who do. May we all strive to be patient and understanding toward one another. -Jordan Moore